Cytokines within the neuroendocrine system

Current Opinion in Endocrinology and Diabetes

Volumn 3, Issue 2, 1996, Pages 149-156

  Turnbull, Andrew V ^a   Rivier, Catherine ^a  

^a SALK INSTITUTE FOR BIOLOGICAL STUDIES   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0000227578     PISSN: 10683097     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1097/00060793-199604000-00013     Document Type: Article

References (87)

1. Turnbull AV, Rivier CL: Regulation of the HPA axis by cytokines. Brain Behav Immun 1995, 9:253-275. Comprehensive review of the role of the cytokines interleukin-1, interleukin-6, and TNF in the regulation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis, including discussions on 1) the presence of cytokine receptors within tissues associated with this axis; 2) the effects of cytokines on this axis; 3) conditions under which this axis is exposed to elevated cytokine levels; and 4) the effects of inhibition of cytokine action on hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal responses.
2. Imura H, Fukata J-I, Mon T: Cytokines and endocrine function: an interaction between the immune and neuroendocrine systems. Clin Endocrinol 1991, 35:107-115.
3. Fantuzzi G, Benigni F, Sironi M, Conni M, Carelli M, Cantonni L, Shapiro L, Dinarello CA, Sipe JD, Ghezzi P: Ciliary neurotrophic factor (CNTF) induces serum amyloid A, hypoglycaemia and anorexia, and potentiates IL-1 induced corticosterone and IL-6 production in mice. Cytokine 1995, 7:150-156.
4. Rivier C, Vale W: Cytokines act within the brain to inhibit luteinizing hormone secretion and ovulation in the rat. Endocrinology 1990, 127:849-856.
5. Rivest S, Rivier C: The role of corticotropin-releasing factor and interleukin-1 in the regulation of neurons controlling reproductive functions. Endocr Rev 1995, 16:177-199. Comprehensive review of the actions of CRF and interleukin-1 on neuronal circuitry governing reproductive function. This review includes detailed discussions of the origins, actions, and sites of action of CRF and interleukin-1 within the brain and possible interactions between these mediators.
6. Rivest S, Lee S, Attardi B, Rivier C: The chronic intracerebroventricular infusion of interleukin-1β alters the activity of the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis of cycling rats: I: effect on LHRH and gonadotropin biosynthesis and secretion. Endocrinology 1993, 133:2424-2430.
7. van der Poll T, Romijn JA, Enden E, Sauerwein HP: Effects of tumor necrosis factor on the hypothalamic-pituitary-testicular axis in healthy men. Metabolism 1993, 42:303-307.
8. Rivier C, Erickson G: The chronic intracerebroventricular infusion of interleukln-1β alters the activity of the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis of cycling rats: II: induction of pseudopregnant-like corpora lutea. Endocrinology 1993, 133:2431-2436.
9. Rivier C: Mechanisms of altered prolactin secretion due to the administration of interleukin-1β into the brain ventricles of the rat. Neuroendocrinology 1995, 62:198-206. This article details the effects of intracerebroventricular interleukin-1 on prolactin secretion in the rat, describing the actions and mechanisms of action in both males and females after short- and long-term administration.
10. Kennedy JA, Wellby ML, Zotti R: Effect of interleukin-1β, tumor necrosis factor-α and interleukin-6 on the control of thyrotropin secretion. Life Sci 1995, 57:487-501.
11. Stouthard JML, van der Poll T, Endert E, Bakker PJM, Veenhof CHN, Sauerwein HP, Romijn JA: Effects of acute and chronic interleukin-6 administration on thyroid hormone metabolism in humans. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1994, 79:1342-1346.
12. Payne LC, Obal F, Opp MR, Krueger JM: Stimulation and inhibition of growth hormone secretion by interleukin-1β: the involvement of growth hormone-releasing hormone. Neuroendocrinology 1992, 56:118-123.
13. Wada Y, Sato M, Niimi M, Tamaki M, Ishida T, Takahara J: Inhibitory effect of interleukin-1 on growth hormone secretion in conscious male rats. Endocrinology 1995, 136:3936-3941. This paper describes the inhibitory influence of interleukin-1 administered either intravenously or intracerebroventricularly on growth hormone secretion in the rat.
14. Landgraf R, Neumann I, Holsboer F, Pittman QJ: Interleukin-1β stimulates both central and peripheral release of vasopressin and oxytocin in the rat. Eur J Neurosci 1995, 7:592-598.
15. Simon C, Polan ML: Cytokines and reproduction. West J Med 1994, 160:425-429.
16. Sun XR, Hedger MP, Risbridger GP: The effect of macrophages and interleukin-1 on testosterone production by purified adult rat Leydig cells cultured under in vitro maintenance conditions. Endocrinology 1993, 132:186-192.
17. Peisen JN, McDonnell KJ, Mulroney SE, Lumpkin MD: Endotoxin-induced suppression of the somatotropic axis is mediated by interleukin-1β and corticotropin-releasing factor in the juvenile rat. Endocrinology 1995, 136:3378-3390. This paper describes the short- and long-term effects of lipopolysaccharide treatment on many aspects of the somatotropic axis in the rat and demonstrates the importance of interleukin-1-induced modulation of hypothalamic releasing factor secretion to these changes.
18. Foxwell BMJ, Barret K, Feldmann M: Cytokine receptors: structure and signal transduction. Clin Exp Immunol 1992, 90:161-169.
19. Sims JE, Giri JG, Dower SK: The two interleukin-1 receptors play different roles in IL-1 actions. Clin Immunol Immunopathol 1994, 72:9-14.
20. Cunningham Jr ET, Wada E, Carter DB, Tracey DE, Battey JF, De Souza EB: In situ histochemical localization of type I interleukin-1 receptor messenger RNA in the central nervous system, pituitary, and adrenal gland of the mouse. J Neurosci 1992, 12:1101-1114.
21. Takao T, Nakata H, Tojo C, Kurokawa H, Nishioka T, Hashimoto K, De Souza EB: Regulation of interleukin-1 receptors and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis by lipopolysaccharide treatment in the mouse. Brain Res 1994, 649:265-270.
22. Bristulf J, Bartfai T: Interlaukln-1β and tumor necrosis factor-α stimulate the mRNA expression of interleukin-1 receptors in mouse anterior pituitary AtT-20 cells. Neurosci Lett 1995, 187:53-56.
23. Parnet P, Brunke D, Goujon E, Desmottes-Mainard J, Biragyn A, Arkins S, Dantzer R, Kelley KW: Molecular Identification of two types of IL-1 receptors in the murine pituitary gland. J Neuroendocrinol 1993, 5:213-218.
24. Marquetee C, Van Dam A-M, Can E, Laniece P, Crumeyrolle-Arias M, Fillion G, Berkenbosch F, Haour F: Rat interleukin-1β binding sites in rat hypothalamic and pituitary gland. Neuroendocrinology 1995, 62:362-369. Many attempts to localize interleukin-1 receptors within the brain-endocrine-immune axes have studied the specific binding of radiolabeled interleukin-1 ligands. This study used rat interleukin-1β to localize interleukin-1 receptors within the rat brain and pituitary gland and describes a distinct absence of interleukin-1 binding in nervous tissue within the hypothalamus, but demonstrates binding to meninges, the walls of the third ventricle, and the choroid plexus.
25. Svenson M, Kayser L, Hansen MB, Rasmussen AK, Bendtzen K: interleukin-1 receptors on human thyroid cells and on the rat thyroid cell line FRTL-5. Cytokine 1991, 3:125-130.
26. Kasai K, Hiraiwa M, Emoto T, Kuroda H, Hattori Y, Mochizuki Y, Nakamura T, Shimoda S: Presence of high affinity receptor for interleukin-1 (IL-1) on cultured porcine thyroid cells. Horm Metab Res 1990, 22:75-79.
27. Cunningham Jr ET, Wada E, Carter DB, Tracey DE, Battey JF, De Souza EB: Distribution of type I interleukin-1 receptor mRNA in testis: an in situ histochemical study in the mouse. Neuroendocrinology 1992, 56:94-99.
28. Takao T, Culp SG, Newton RC, De Souza EB: Type I interleukin-1 receptors in the mouse brain-endocrine-immune axis labelled with [125I]recombinant human interleukin-1 receptor antagonist. J Neuroimmunol 1992, 41:51-60.
29. Hurwitz A, Loukides J, Ricciarelli E, Botero L, Katz E, McAllister JM, Garcia JE, Rohan R, Adashi EY, Hernandez ER: Human intraovarian interleukin-1 (IL-1) system: highly compartmentalized and hormonally dependent regulation of the genes encoding IL-1, its receptor, and its receptor antagonist. J Clin Invest 1992, 89:1746-1754.
30. Simon C, Frances A, Piquette G, Polan ML: Immunohistochemical localization of the interleukin-1 system in the mouse ovary during follicular growth, ovulation, and luteinization. Biol Reprod 1994, 50:449-457.
31. Yanagihara N, Minami K, Shirakawa F, Uezono Y, Kobayashi H, Eto S, Izumi F: Stimulatory effect of IL-1 beta on catecholamine secretion from cultured bovine adrenal medullary cells. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 1994, 198:81-87.
32. Ohmichi M, Hirota K, Koike K, Kurachi H, Ohtsuka S, Matsuzaki N, Yamaguchi M, Miyake A, Tanizawa O: Binding sites for interleukin-6 in the anterior pituitary gland. Neuroendocrinology 1992, 55:199-203.
33. Wolvers DA, Marquette C, Berkenbosch F, Haour F: Tumor necrosis factor-alpha: specific binding sites in rodent brain and pituitary gland. Eur Cytokine Netw 1993, 4:377-381.
34. Velkeniers B, Vergani P, Trouillas J, D'Haens J, Hooghe RJ, Hooghe-Peters EL: Expression of IL-6 mRNA in normal rat and human pituitaries and in human pituitary adenomas. J Histochem Cytochem 1994, 42:67-76.
35. Gradient RA, Lachmund A, Unsicker K, Ottem U: Expression of interleukin-6 (IL-6) and IL-6 receptor mRNAs in rat adrenal medulla. Neurosci Lett 1995, 194:17-20.
36. De SK, Chen H-L, Pace JL, Hunt JS, Terranova PF, Enders GC: Expression of tumor necrosis factor-α in mouse spermatogenic cells. Endocrinology 1993, 133:389-396.
37. Yabuuchi K, Minami M, Katsumata S, Satoh M: Localization of type I interleukin-1 receptor mRNA in the rat brain. Mol Brain Res 1994, 27:27-36.
38. de Vries HE, Hoogendoorn KH, van Dijk J, Zijlstra FJ, van Dam A-M, Breimer DD, van Berkel TJC, de Boer AG, Kuiper J: Eicosanoid production of rat cerebral endothelial cells: stimulation of lipopolysaccharide, interleukin-1 and interleukin-6. J Neuroimmunol 1995, 59:1-8. This paper describes potential mechanisms by which the cytokines interleukin-1 and -6 present in blood may exert actions on central nervous system activity without penetrating the blood-brain barrier. Interleukin-1 and -6 stimulate the secretion from cerebral endothelial cells of eicosanoids, known mediators of the actions of these cytokines in brain.
39. Cornfield LJ, Sills MA: High affinity interleukin-6 binding sites in bovine hypothalamus. Eur J Pharmacol 1991, 202:113-115.
40. Schobitz B, Voorhuis DAM, De Kloet ER: Localization of interleukin-6 mRNA and interleukin 6 receptor mRNA in rat brain. Neurosci Lett 1992, 136:189-192.
41. Kinouchi K, Brown G, Pasternak G, Donner B: Identification and characterization of receptors for tumor necrosis factor-alpha in the brain. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 1991, 18:1532-1538.
42. Fourcin M, Chevalier S, Lebrun J-J, Kelly P, Pouplard A, Wijdenes J, Gascan H: Involvement of gp130/interleukin-6 receptor transducing component in interleukin-11 receptor. Eur J Immunol 1994, 24:277-280. This paper demonstrates that, in addition to interleukin-6, oncostatin M, leukemia inhibitory factor, and ciliary neurotropic factor, interleukin-11 also employs glycoprotein 130 as a signal-transducing protein.
43. Novick D, Shulman LM, Chen L, Revel M: Enhancement of interleukin-6 cytostatic effect on human breast carcinoma cells by soluble IL-6 receptor from urine and reversion by monoclonal antibody. Cylokine 1992, 4:6-11.
44. Mackiewicz A, Wiznerowicz M, Roeb E, Karczewska A, Nowak J, Heinrich PC, Rose-John S: Soluble interleukin-6 receptor is biologically active in vivo. Cytokine 1995, 7:142-149. This paper demonstrates that delivery of soluble interleukin-6 receptor dramatically reduces the incidence of tumors in mice injected with melanoma cells and is the first study to show that the soluble interleukin-6 receptor injected either alone or in combination with interleukin-6 is biologically active in vivo.
45. Schobitz B, Pezeshki G, Pohl T, Hemmann U, Heinrich PC, Holsboer F, Reul MHM: Soluble interleukin-6 (IL-6) receptor augments central effects of IL-6 in vivo. FASEB J 1995, 9:659-664. This paper shows that intracerebroventricular injection of soluble interleukin-6 receptor, at doses that have no effect alone, enhance and prolong the effects of interleukin-6 on food intake, body temperature, locomotor activity, and water consumption.
46. Greenfeder SA, Nunes P, Kwee L, Labow M, Chizzonite RA, Ju G: Molecular cloning and characterization of a second subunit of the interleukin 1 receptor complex. J Biol Chem 1995, 270:13757-13765. These authors used an antibody that blocks the binding of interleukin-1 to interleukin-1 receptors to identify a protein related to, but distinct from, both known forms of interleukin-1 receptors. When coexpressed with type I interleukin-1 receptor, this "interleukin-1 receptor accessory protein" increases the binding affinity of the receptor for interleukin-1.
47. Rettori V, Dees WL, Hiney JK, Lyson K, McCann SM: An interleukin-1-alpha-like neuronal system in the pre-optic-hypothalamic region and its induction by bacterial lipopolysaccharide in concentrations which alter pituitary hormone release. Neuroimmunomodulation 1994, 1:251-258.
48. Hagan P, Pools S, Bristow AF: Endotoxin-stimulated production of rat hypothalamic interleukin-1β in vivo and in vitro, measured by specific immunoradiometric assay. J Mol Endocrinol 1993, 11:31-36.
49. De Simoni MG, Del Bo R, De Luigi A, Simard S, Forloni G: Central endotoxin induces different patterns of interleukin (IL)-1β and IL-6 messenger ribonucleic acid expression and IL-6 secretion in the brain and periphery. Endocrinology 1995, 136:897-902.
50. Muramami N, Fukata J, Tsukada T, Kobayashi H, Ebisui O, Segawa H, Muro S, Imura H, Nakao K: Bacterial lipopolysaccharide-induced expression of interleukin-6 messenger ribonucleic acid in the rat hypothalamus, pituitary, adrenal gland, and spleen. Endocrinology 1993, 133:2574-2578.
51. Jansky L, Vybiral S, Poposolova D, Roth J, Dornand J, Zeisberger E, Kaminkova J: Production of systemic and hypothalamic cytokines during the early phase of endotoxin fever. Neuroendocrinology 1995, 62:55-61. This paper describes the time course of changes in interleukin-1, interleukin-6, and TNF-α in plasma and within hypothalamic perfusates obtained by push-pull perfusion in guinea pigs.
52. Breder CD, Tsujimoto M, Terano Y, Scott DW, Saper CB: Distribution and characterization of tumor necrosis factor-α-like immunoreactivity in the murine central nervous system. J Comp Neurol 1993, 337:543-567.
53. Breder CD, Hazuka C, Ghayur T, Klug C, Huginin M, Yasuda K, Teng M, Saper CB: Regional distribution of tumor necrosis factor a expression in the mouse brain after systemic lipopolysaccharide administration. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 1994, 91:11393-11397.
54. Koenig JI, Snow K, Clark BD, Toni R, Canno JG, Shaw AR, Dinarello CA, Reichlein S, Lee SL, Lechan RM: Intrinsic pituitary interleukin-1β is induced by bacterial lipopolysaccharide. Endocrinology 1990, 126:3053-3058.
55. Spangelo BL, Judd AM, Isakson PC, MacLeod RM: Interleukin-1 stimulates interleukin-6 release from rat anterior pituitary cells in vitro. Endocrinology 1991, 128:2685-2692.
56. Tatsuno I, Somogyvari-Vigh A, Mizuno K, Gottschall PE, Hidaka H, Arimura A: Neuropeptide regulation of interleukin-6 production from the pituitary: stimulation by adenylate cyclase activating polypeptide and calcitonin gene-related peptide. Endocrinology 1991, 129:1797-1804.
57. Sarlis NJ, Stephanou A, Knight RA, Lightman SL, Chowdrey HS: Effects of glucocorticoids and chronic inflammatory stress upon anterior pituitary interteukin-6 mRNA in the rat. Br J Rheumatol 1993, 32:653-657.
58. Gatti S, Bartfai T: Induction of tumor necrosis factor-alpha mRNA in the brain after peripheral endotoxin treatment: comparison with interleukin-1 family and interleukin-6. Brain Res 1993, 624:291-294.
59. Judd AM, MacLeod RM: Differential release of tumor necrosis factor and IL-6 from adrenal zona glomerulosa cells in vitro. Am J Physiol 1995, 268:E114-E120. This paper describes the secretion of interleukin-6 and TNF from rat adrenal cells in culture. It shows that these cytokines are secreted mostly from the zona glomerulosa and characterizes the effects of lipopolysaccharide, adrenocorticotropin, interleukin-1, protein kinase C activators, and calcium ionophores on their release.
60. Gerard N, Syed V, Bardin W, Genetet N, Jegou B: Sertoli cells are the site of interleukin-1α synthesis in rat testis. Mol Cell Endocrinol 1991, 82:R13-R16.
61. Lin T, Wang D, Nagpal ML: Human chorionic gonadotropin induces interleukin-1 gene expression in rat Leydig cells in vivo. Mol Cell Endocrinol 1993, 95:139-145.
62. Xiong Y, Hales DB: Expression, regulation, and production of tumor necrosis factor-α in mouse testicular interstitial macrophages in vitro. Endocrinology 1993, 133:2568-2573.
63. Boockfor FR, Wang D, Lin T, Nagpal ML, Spangelo BL: Interleukin-6 secretion from rat Leydig cells in culture. Endocrinology 1994, 134:2150-2155.
64. Hurwitz A, Ricciarelli E, Botero L, Rohan RM, Hernandez ER, Adashi EY: Endocrine and autocrine-mediated regulation of rat ovarian (theca-interstitial) interleukin-1β gene expression: gonadotropin-dependent preovulatory acquisition. Endocrinology 1991, 129:3427-3429.
65. Jasper M, Norman RJ: Immunoactive interleukin-1β and tumor necrosis factor-α in thecal, stromal and granulosa cell cultures from normal and polycystic ovaries. Hum Reprod 1995, 10:1352-1354.
66. Gorospe WC, Hughes Jr FM, Spangelo BL: Interleukin-6: effects on and production by rat granulosa cells in vitro. Endocrinology 1992, 130:1750-1752.
67. Sancho-Tello M, Perez-Roger I, Imakawa K, Tilzer L, Terranova PF: Expression of tumor necrosis factor-α in the rat ovary. Endocrinology 1992, 130:1359-1364.
68. Sauer J, Arzt E, Gumprecht H, Hopfner U, Stalla GK: Expression of interleukin-1 receptor antagonist in human pituitary adenomas in vitro. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1994, 79:1857-1863.
69. Schultzberg M, Tingsborg S, Nobel S, Lundkvist J, Svenson S, Simoncsits A, Bartfai T: Interleukin-1 receptor antagonist protein and mRNA in the rat adrenal gland. J Interferon Cytokine Res 1995, 15:721-729.
70. Licinio J, Wong M-L, Gold PW: Localization of interleukin-1 receptor antagonist mRNA in rat brain. Endocrinology 1991, 129:562-564.
71. Shintani F, Nakai T, Kanba S, Koichi S, Yagi G, Shiozawa M, Also S, Kato R, Asai M: Involvement of interleukin-1 in immobilization stress-induced increase in plasma adrenocorticotropic hormone and in release of hypothalamic catecholamines in the rat. J Neurosci 1995, 15:1961-1970. This study shows that interleukin-1 bioactivity in the hypothalamus is rapidly increased following immobilization of the rat, and that inhibition of the action of interleukin-1 attenuates the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis and hypothalamic catecholamine responses to stress. This study is the first to demonstrate a role for interleukin-1 in the regulation of neuroendocrine responses in response to noninflammatory and noninfectious stress.
72. Shintani F, Nakai T, Kanba S, Kato R, Asai M: Role of interleukin-1 in stress responses: a putative neurotransmitter. Mol Neurobiol 1995, 10:47-71. This review presents the hypothesis that interleukin-1 is a neurotransmitter within the brain that plays a key role in coordinating hypothalamic responses to stress.
73. Smith MA, Makino S, Kim SY, Kvetnansky R: Stress increases brain-derived neurotropic factor messenger ribonucleic acid in the hypothalamus and pituitary. Endocrinology 1995, 136:3743-3750. This paper describes the localization of the nerve growth factor-related cytokine, brain-derived neurotropic factor, within the hypothalamus and pituitary. These authors describe brain-derived neurotropic factor mRNA in the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus, the lateral hypothalamus, and the anterior and neurointermediate lobes of the rat pituitary and demonstrate the effects of stress and reduction in negative feedback by glucocorticoid or thyroid hormones on brain-derived neurotropic factor mRNA expression.
74. Simon C, Tsafriri A, Chun S-Y, Piquette GN, Dang W, Polan ML: interleukin-1 receptor antagonist suppresses human chorionic gonadotropin-induced ovulation in the rat. Biol Reprod 1994, 51:662-667.
75. Laye S, Bluthe RM, Kent S, Combe C, Medina C, Parnet P, Kelley K, Dantzer R: Subdiaphragmatic vagotomy blocks induction of IL-1 beta mRNA in mice brain in response to peripheral LPS. Am J Physiol 1995, 37:R1327-R1331.
76. Fleshner M, Goehler LE, Herman J, Relton JK, Maier SF, Watkins LR: Interleukin-1 beta induced corticosteroid elevation and hypothalamic NE depletion is vagally mediated. Brain Res Bull 1995, 37:605-610.
77. Watkins LR, Goehler LE, Relton JK, Tartaglia N, Silberg L, Martin D, Maier SF: Blockade of interteukin-1 induced hyperthermia by subdiaphragmatic vagotomy: evidence for vagal mediation of immune brain communication. Neurosci Lett 1995, 183:27-31.
78. Watkins LR, Maier SF, Goehler LE: Cytokine-to-brain communication: a review and analysis of alternative mechanisms. Life Sci 1995, 57:1011-1026. This study provides evidence for the existence of a neural afferent mechanism by which elevation in peripheral cytokine levels influences central nervous system activity. The induction of interleukin-1β mRNA in the hypothalamus; the depletion of hypothalamic catecholamines; fever; increases in CRF mRNA in the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus; and increases in plasma corticotropin and corticosterone concentrations in response to the intraperitoneal administration of lipopolysaccharide are all markedly reduced or prevented by prior subdiaphragmatic vagotomy. (See also Laye et al. [Am J Physiol 1995, 37:R1327-R1331], Fleshner et al. [Brain Res Bull 1995, 37:605-610], Watkins et al. [Neurosci Lett 1995, 183:27-31], and Gaykema et al. [Endocrinology 1995, 136:4714-4720.])
79. Watkins LR, Maier SF, Goehler LE: Cytokine-to-brain communication: a review and analysis of alternative mechanisms. Life Sci 1995, 57:1011-1026. This study provides evidence for the existence of a neural afferent mechanism by which elevation in peripheral cytokine levels influences central nervous system activity. The induction of interleukin-1β mRNA in the hypothalamus; the depletion of hypothalamic catecholamines; fever; increases in CRF mRNA in the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus; and increases in plasma corticotropin and corticosterone concentrations in response to the intraperitoneal administration of lipopolysaccharide are all markedly reduced or prevented by prior subdiaphragmatic vagotomy. (See also Laye et al. [Am J Physiol 1995, 37:R1327-R1331], Fleshner et al. [Brain Res Bull 1995, 37:605-610], Watkins et al. [Neurosci Lett 1995, 183:27-31], and Gaykema et al. [Endocrinology 1995, 136:4714-4720.])
80. Watkins LR, Maier SF, Goehler LE: Cytokine-to-brain communication: a review and analysis of alternative mechanisms. Life Sci 1995, 57:1011-1026. This study provides evidence for the existence of a neural afferent mechanism by which elevation in peripheral cytokine levels influences central nervous system activity. The induction of interleukin-1β mRNA in the hypothalamus; the depletion of hypothalamic catecholamines; fever; increases in CRF mRNA in the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus; and increases in plasma corticotropin and corticosterone concentrations in response to the intraperitoneal administration of lipopolysaccharide are all markedly reduced or prevented by prior subdiaphragmatic vagotomy. (See also Laye et al. [Am J Physiol 1995, 37:R1327-R1331], Fleshner et al. [Brain Res Bull 1995, 37:605-610], Watkins et al. [Neurosci Lett 1995, 183:27-31], and Gaykema et al. [Endocrinology 1995, 136:4714-4720.])
81. Watkins LR, Maier SF, Goehler LE: Cytokine-to-brain communication: a review and analysis of alternative mechanisms. Life Sci 1995, 57:1011-1026. This study provides evidence for the existence of a neural afferent mechanism by which elevation in peripheral cytokine levels influences central nervous system activity. The induction of interleukin-1β mRNA in the hypothalamus; the depletion of hypothalamic catecholamines; fever; increases in CRF mRNA in the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus; and increases in plasma corticotropin and corticosterone concentrations in response to the intraperitoneal administration of lipopolysaccharide are all markedly reduced or prevented by prior subdiaphragmatic vagotomy. (See also Laye et al. [Am J Physiol 1995, 37:R1327-R1331], Fleshner et al. [Brain Res Bull 1995, 37:605-610], Watkins et al. [Neurosci Lett 1995, 183:27-31], and Gaykema et al. [Endocrinology 1995, 136:4714-4720.])
82. Watkins LR, Maier SF, Goehler LE: Cytokine-to-brain communication: a review and analysis of alternative mechanisms. Life Sci 1995, 57:1011-1026. This study provides evidence for the existence of a neural afferent mechanism by which elevation in peripheral cytokine levels influences central nervous system activity. The induction of interleukin-1β mRNA in the hypothalamus; the depletion of hypothalamic catecholamines; fever; increases in CRF mRNA in the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus; and increases in plasma corticotropin and corticosterone concentrations in response to the intraperitoneal administration of lipopolysaccharide are all markedly reduced or prevented by prior subdiaphragmatic vagotomy. (See also Laye et al. [Am J Physiol 1995, 37:R1327-R1331], Fleshner et al. [Brain Res Bull 1995, 37:605-610], Watkins et al. [Neurosci Lett 1995, 183:27-31], and Gaykema et al. [Endocrinology 1995, 136:4714-4720.])
83. Gaykema RPA, Dijkstra I, Tilders FJH: Subdiaphragmatic vagotomy suppresses endotoxin-induced activation of hypothalamic corticotropin-releasing hormone neurons and ACTH secretion. Endocrinology 1995, 136:4717-4720.
84. Artz E, Buric R, Stelzer G, Stalla J, Sauer J, Renner U, Stalla GK: Interleukin involvement in anterior pituitary cell growth regulation: effects of IL-2 and IL-6. Endocrinology 1993, 132:459-467.
85. Pozzoli G, Costa A, Grimaldi M, Schettini G, Preziosi P, Grossman A, Navarra P: Lipopolysaccharide modulation of elcosanoid and corticotropin-releasing hormone release from rat hypothalamic explants and astrocyte cultures in vitro: evidence for the involvement of prostaglandin E2 but not prostagtendin F2 alpha and lack of effect of nerve growth factor. J Endocrinol 1994, 140:103-109.
86. Renner U, Newton CJ, Pagotto U, Sauer J, Arzt E, Stalla G: Involvement of interleukln-1 and interleukin-1 receptor antagonist in rat anterior pituitary cell growth regulation. Endocrinology 1995, 136:3186-3193.
87. Zerek-Melen G, Zylinska K, Fryczak J, Mucha S, Stepien H: Influence of interleukin 1 and anti-human interleukin 1 receptor antibody on the growth and function of the thyroid gland in rats. Eur J Endocrinol 1994, 131:531-534.